Bu Xi: Breaking the Impasse with "Foolish Loyalty"? Decoding the Economic Game of This Eccentric Figure in the Book of Han

In the vast historical river of the Han Dynasty, there was one figure who did not leave behind a legendary record of military prowess, yet who stirred up massive waves in the history of economic policy—Bu Xi. He served as the Grand Tutor of Qi, was a staunch representative of the "anti-salt-and-iron" faction, and was an official willing to empty his household to support the state. Understanding Bu Xi is the key to grasping how the "competing with the people for profit" (yuminzhengli) of the mid-to-late Western Han transitioned into "state monopoly."

Brief Introduction: The Rise from Shepherd to Grand Tutor

Bu Xi was a native of Jinan and came from humble origins, living his early life as a shepherd. According to the Book of Han · Biography of Bu Xi, he became famous for refusing to pay taxes (though his real intention was to encourage the national effort against the Xiongnu) and was subsequently summoned by Emperor Wu of Han. When questioned by the Emperor, Bu Xi stated plainly: "Your servant has only been a shepherd since childhood and is not accustomed to being a minister. I dare not speak of wealth, but I wish to contribute three hundred thousand to support the military." This patriotic expression, so simple it bordered on "obstinacy," led to his extraordinary promotion. He eventually rose to the position of Grand Tutor of Qi and concurrently served as Grand Censor and other high-ranking roles. However, the pinnacle of his political career was reached through his participation in a famous court debate—his opposition to the state monopoly on salt and iron.

Core Knowledge Point: Why Did Bu Xi Oppose Salt and Iron?

During the transitional period of the reigns of Emperor Zhao and Emperor Xuan, officials like Sang Hongyang strongly advocated for the implementation of state monopolies on salt and iron, as well as the Junshu (equalized transport) and Pingzhun (price stabilization) policies, to replenish the national treasury. Bu Xi, however, stood on the side of private merchants and ordinary citizens, offering sharp criticism:

1. Economic Logic: Bu Xi argued that salt and iron are daily necessities for the people. State monopoly over their operation inevitably leads to "competing with the people for profit," drives up prices, and increases the burden on the lower class.
2. Political Metaphor: He pointed out that the true source of national wealth lies in agriculture and the confidence of the people, not in squeezing resources from the populace. Over-reliance on commercial monopolies will lead to the "exhaustion of the people's strength," thereby undermining the foundation of the state.
3. Personal Stance: As a former local official of humble origin, Bu Xi understood the hardships of the common people better than the central bureaucrats. His opposition represented a thoughtful reflection within the scholar-official class on the balance between "emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce" and "state intervention."

Connection to the Book of Han: A Three-Way Game in the Court Debate

In the Book of Han · Treatise on Food and Money and the Book of Han · Biography of Diligent Officials, Bu Xi’s role does not exist in isolation; rather, it is embedded in a grand court debate.

• The Sang Hongyang Faction: Advocated for state control over the economic lifelines to counter the threat from the Xiongnu, emphasizing "enriching the country and strengthening the military."
• The "Virtuous and Literary" Faction: Including Confucian scholars such as Dong Zhongshu, this group spoke in defense of Bu Xi, emphasizing that "governance through virtue" is superior to "governance through profit." They viewed the state monopoly on salt and iron as a practice that "corrupts customs."
• Emperor Wu’s Choice: Despite the objections of Bu Xi and others, Emperor Wu persisted with the salt and iron policy due to urgent military needs. However, Bu Xi’s remonstrations were fully preserved in the Book of Han, reflecting the significant internal divisions within the court.

Conclusion: Underestimated Historical Echoes

Bu Xi did not simply oppose commercialization; rather, he was wary of the pressure that the unlimited expansion of state power placed on the private economy. In the Book of Han, his image is that of a loyal and straightforward Grand Tutor of Qi, but also a mirror reflecting the difficult balancing act in Han economic policy between "public interest" and "private interest." Reading the Book of Han today, Bu Xi’s words still hold practical significance: Did policymakers truly understand the boundaries of "profit" and the baseline of "the people"?

> Further Reading: Book of Han · Volume 30 · Treatise on Food and Money (Part 1), Discourses on Salt and Iron (compiled by Huan Tan of the Eastern Han, recording the original debates of the Salt and Iron Conference).