Yang Xiong and His Criticism of Rhapsodies: Deciphering the Literary Theoretical Shift in the Hanshu

Brief Introduction

Yang Xiong (53 BCE – 18 CE), courtesy name Ziyun, from Chengdu in Shu Commandery, was a prominent rhapsody writer and scholar of the Western Han Dynasty. In the Biography of Yang Xiong (Hanshu, Biography of Yang Xiong), he is not only depicted as a giant of literary creation but also as a crucial founder of ancient Chinese literary criticism theory. Yang Xiong’s critique of the grand rhapsodies (fu) of writers like Sima Xiangru, particularly his famous judgment that they "encourage a hundred times and satirize only once," marks a significant turning point where Western Han fu studies shifted from pursuing grandeur and elaboration to reflecting on the social functions of literature.

Core Concepts

1. The Theoretical Substance of "Encouraging a Hundred, Satirizing One"

In his later years, Yang Xiong engaged in a profound reflection on the genre of fu. He argued that the works by Sima Xiangru and others were voluminous and ornate. Readers, during their reading process, were easily dazzled by the spectacular scenes and pleasing literary flourishes, ultimately deriving pleasure ("encouragement" or "persuasion to action"), while the author's original intent of subtle satire ("admonition") was submerged.

* "Encouragement" (Quan): Refers to the extensive elaboration, description, and boasting within the fu, which tends to induce feelings of longing or indulgence in the reader.
* "Satire" (Feng): Refers to the author’s intended moral reproof, warning, or satire, which often occupies only a negligible proportion.
Conclusion: Yang Xiong argued that this literary effect is unbalanced, stating that "encouragement is pervasive while the satirical intent is obscure." Consequently, he lamented that this was "different from the principles of ritual and morality" (yi hu li yi*).

2. The Creative Shift from Fu to Prose

Based on the aforementioned critique, Yang Xiong "stopped practicing fu" in his later years and turned to philosophical works such as the Tai Xuan (Supreme Mystery). This transition reflects his re-examination of literature's social responsibility: literature should not merely be a heap of ornate language but should also carry Confucian moral ethics and political admonition. He advocated for the "loyal heart of the fu," emphasizing the author’s sincerity and moral integrity.

3. Reflections on the Structure of the Han Grand Fu

Yang Xiong’s criticism did not deny the fu genre itself but rather reflected on the prevailing mode of the grand fu. He pointed out that the "deep admonition" of fu writers was often placed at the very end or in extremely subtle places, while the main body of luxurious and extravagant descriptions actually acted as a misdirection. This perspective profoundly influenced Liu Xie’s Wen Xin diao long (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons), specifically the discussion in "Critiquing the Sao" about "creating text for the sake of emotion" versus "creating emotion for the sake of text."

Connection to the Content of the Hanshu

In the Biography of Yang Xiong in the Hanshu, Ban Gu quotes Yang Xiong’s critique of Sima Xiangru’s fu and records Yang’s own account of his creative journey.

1. Context of the Dialogue: The Hanshu records that when discussing Sima Xiangru’s Zi Xu (Lord Xu) and Shang Lin (Imperial Park), Yang Xiong expressed the sentiment that although the fu was ostensibly intended for "moral reproof and admonition," it effectively "encouraged a hundred and satirized one." This passage vividly illustrates the debates within the literati class during the mid-to-late Western Han period regarding the function of literature.
2. Biographical Evaluation: In the concluding evaluation of the biography, Ban Gu not only affirmed Yang Xiong’s vast learning and prolific writing but also subtly pointed out that his works were overly arcane and abstruse, lacking the clarity of the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals). This forms an intertextual contrast with Yang Xiong’s critique of the grand fu: while Yang attempted to correct literary trends through philosophical treatises, his own later works fell into a new dilemma of obscurity.
3. Historical Positioning: Through the records in the Hanshu, Yang Xiong is viewed not merely as a rhapsody writer but as a bridge between ancient Han classics studies (Jingxue) and literary criticism. His theories provided essential intellectual resources for Wang Chong’s Lunheng (Investigating the Balance of Ideas) in the Eastern Han and for the era of literary self-awareness in the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties.

Conclusion

The image of Yang Xiong in the Hanshu is that of more than just a master of literary composition; he was a profound literary reflector. The argument of "encouraging a hundred and satirizing one" precisely identified the tension between the form and function of the Han grand fu. Understanding Yang Xiong and his presentation in the Hanshu helps in grasping a critical turning point in the history of Chinese literary criticism, marking the evolution from "literature as a vessel for the Way" to the independent aesthetic dimension of literature.