Confucianism in the Hanshu: From Philosophical School to State Ideology

Introduction

Confucianism is the core of traditional Chinese culture, with Confucius as its founder. It advocates moral principles such as benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), ritual propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and trustworthiness (xin). In Sima Qian's Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), Confucianism is primarily described as a philosophical school. However, in the Hanshu (Book of Han) written by Ban Gu, the status of Confucianism underwent a significant transformation. It was no longer just an academic faction but became the official guiding ideology for governance in the Western Han Dynasty. The Hanshu, specifically its Yiwen Zhi (Treatise on Literature and Culture), listed Confucianism as the head of the "Nine Schools," marking its formal rise from a scholar-bureaucrat doctrine to the orthodox stage of national politics.

Core Knowledge Points

1. Institutional Confirmation of "Exclusively Revering the Confucian Way"
The Hanshu reflects the political reality of "suppressing the Hundred Schools and exclusively honoring Confucianism" after Emperor Wu of Han. Unlike the "Hundred Schools Contending for Influence" of the pre-Qin period, Confucianism in the Hanshu was no longer merely one among many thinkers; it was the state orthodoxy. Ban Gu emphasized in the text that Confucian classics played a crucial role in maintaining hierarchical order and regulating the relationships between ruler and minister, and father and son, viewing this as the foundation of social stability.

2. The Fusion of Classic Studies and Confucianism
The Hanshu details the debates within Confucianism between New Text and Old Text classicism. For instance, it records the transmission lineages of classics such as the Shangshu (Book of Documents), the Shi (Book of Songs), and the Li (Rites), highlighting the authority of Confucian classics in exegetical studies. This reverence for the "Classics" (Jing) was a key feature distinguishing Confucianism from other schools in the Han Dynasty.

3. Institutionalized Confucianism
In the Hanshu, the Confucian concept of "ritual" (li) was no longer limited to moral cultivation but transformed into specific state ceremonies, bureaucratic systems, and legal norms. Confucian thought penetrated the bureaucratic system through "proper names and teachings" (ming jiao), becoming the basis for the selection of officials (e.g., the recommendation of filial sons and incorruptible officials) and the standard for behavior.

Connections to Content in the Hanshu

The Yiwen Zhi (Treatise on Literature and Culture) of the Hanshu**: This is the most critical chapter for understanding the status of Confucianism in the Hanshu. Ban Gu listed Confucianism as the "head of the various schools" and cited the cataloging system of the Qi Lue* (Seven Categories) to systematically organize Confucian classics. He evaluated Confucianism by stating that "Confucius was the patriarch of the various sages," explicitly establishing Confucius's status as a founding patriarch in academic history. He closely linked this with strategies for governing the state, reflecting the official emphasis on Confucian learning in the Han Dynasty.

The Rulin Zhuan (Biographies of Confucian Scholars) in the Hanshu**: This chapter specifically records the deeds of Confucian scholars from the early Han to the end of the Western Han, including figures such as Shusun Tong, Dong Zhongshu, and Han Ying. These individuals were not just thinkers but politicians who participated in formulating rituals, interpreting classics, and influencing court politics. Through their biographies, the Hanshu* demonstrates how Confucianism transformed from being the domain of "unofficial scholars" to that of "high-ranking court officials," and how their academic positions directly influenced national policies.

The Wuxing Zhi (Treatise on the Five Phases) in the Hanshu**: Ban Gu linked natural disasters and anomalies with Confucian ethical politics, arguing that the disorder of the Five Elements was the result of the ruler's lack of virtue and the breakdown of Confucian ritual systems. This concept of "Interaction Between Heaven and Mankind" (Tian Ren Gan Ying) was a core element of Dong Zhongshu's new Confucianism, which was widely applied in the Hanshu* to reinforce the legitimacy of Confucian political authority.

Conclusion

In the context of the Hanshu, Confucianism had transcended the status of a general philosophical school to become the cornerstone of the Han state's institutions, legal system, and social ethics. Through the Hanshu, Ban Gu not only recorded history but also, from the perspective of an official historian, established the unshakable status of Confucianism in the orthodox culture of China. This transformation profoundly influenced the political and cultural trajectory of China for over the subsequent two millennia.