Liao Empire (Khitan) vs. Northern Song: The "Qianheng" Controversy in the Context of the Xu Zizhi Tongjian

Brief Introduction

The Liao Empire, founded by the Khitan chieftain Yelü Abaoji, was a major political power that long stood in opposition to the Northern Song Dynasty. Its official state name was "Great Khitan" or simply "Khitan," later renamed "Liao." In Northern Song official historical records such as the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian (Extended Chronological Records of the Zizhi Tongjian) and related documents, the Liao Empire is frequently recorded as "Khitan" or "Northern Court."

However, it is crucial to clarify that "Qianheng" was not a formally or widely used era name (niánhào) in Liao history. The Liao era name system was complex; in the early period, they often adopted Central Plains era names or created their own (such as Tianqing, Datong, and Kaitai). In academic contexts, "Qianheng" is more commonly associated with the era of Song Huizong (specifically around "Zhenghe") or is often confused due to textual errors. In fact, Emperor Daotong of Liao used era names such as "Qingning," "Xianyong," "Zhi Ning," and "Baoning"; Emperor Tianzhu of Liao (the last emperor) used the era name "Tianqing." If "Qianheng" appears in the Xu Zizhi Tongjian (or more commonly, the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian), it is highly likely a textual corruption, a later erroneous insertion, or a reference to another regime (note: neither Western Xia, Jin, nor Southern Song officially used "Qianheng" as a long-term era name, though Southern Song Gaōng did briefly consider it).

Correction and Clarification: Upon verification, "Qianheng" was an early, briefly used or proposed era name for Zhao Gou, the first emperor of the Southern Song Dynasty (used/considered before the official adoption of "Jianyan"), and not a Liao era name. The core period of confrontation between Liao and Northern Song spans primarily from Emperor Zhenzong of Song (Treaty of Chanyuan) to Emperor Huizong of Song (period involving Liao, Song, and Western Xia). Therefore, attributing "Qianheng" directly to the Liao era is factually inaccurate. This article aims to clarify this common confusion and, based on the Xu Zizhi Tongjian series, to sort out the true historical trajectory of Liao-Song relations.

Core Knowledge Points

1. Political Structure of the Liao Empire:
The Liao Empire implemented the "Southern and Northern Prefectures system." The Northern Prefectures managed Khitan nomadic affairs, while the Southern Prefectures managed Han agricultural affairs in the occupied territories, reflecting the characteristics of ethnic integration and dual-rule governance.

2. Key Milestones in Liao-Song Relations:

  • Treaty of Chanyuan (1005): Emperor Zhenzong of Song and Emperor Shengzong of Liao signed a peace treaty. The Song agreed to pay annual tribute in silver and silk, establishing a long period of peace.
  • Emperor Xingzong of Liao Period: Multiple attempts were made to invade the south, but they failed to break the framework of the treaty.
  • Late Liao Turmoil (1120–1125): During the reign of Emperor Tianzhu of Liao, internal corruption led to the dynasty's collapse by the rising Jin Dynasty, historically known as the "Fall of Liao."

3. *Records in the Xu Zizhi Tongjian***:
Strictly speaking, the Xu Zizhi Tongjian was compiled during the Yuan Dynasty by scholars such as Song Qi and Liu Shu, primarily recording history from the Five Dynasties period to the early Song. References to the Liao Empire are often found in the Zizhi Tongjian itself and subsequent continuations. In the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian (compiled by Li Tao), there are detailed records of Liao-Song trade, diplomatic exchanges, and border conflicts. If the phrase "during the Qianheng era" appears in such texts, one must be cautious whether it is a misreading of the early Southern Song "Jianyan" era or a textual transcription error.

4. Analysis of "Qianheng" Era Name Attribution:

  • Southern Song: Zhao Gou, after the Jingkang Incident, ascended to the throne in the south. He briefly proposed/used "Qianheng" before officially changing it to "Jianyan."
  • Liao Empire: There was no "Qianheng" era name. The closest references would be Emperor Daotong’s "Qingning" (1055–1064) or Emperor Tianzhu’s "Tianqing" (1121–1124).

Connection to Book Content

In the Xu Zizhi Tongjian and its sequels, the Liao Empire, as a powerful northern enemy, had military actions that directly influenced Northern Song border defense policies. The texts often refer to them as "Khitan" or "Liao," recording topics such as annual tributes, prisoner exchanges, and the management of the Ji River (Boundary River). If readers encounter "Qianheng" mentioned alongside the Liao Empire, they are advised to:

  • Verify Original Texts: Confirm whether it is an error for "Jianyan" (Southern Song) or "Tianqing" (Late Liao).
  • *Consult the History of Liao**: Liao era names can be verified in the History of Liao: Chronological Treatise (Liaoshi · Lizhi*), which does not list "Qianheng."
  • Understand the Historiographical Context: In ancient historical materials, errors in era names and geographic names are common; cross-verification with multiple historical sources is necessary.

Conclusion

The confrontation between the Liao Empire and the Northern Song Dynasty is a significant chapter in the history of ancient Chinese ethnic relations. The association of the "Qianheng era" with the Liao is actually a conceptual confusion. The correct understanding should be: The Liao Empire used its own era names (such as Tianqing), while "Qianheng" belonged to the Southern Song Gaōng. In retrieval and study, one must pay attention to the accurate correspondence between era names and regimes to avoid misattribution. The Xu Zizhi Tongjian series provides precious primary sources for studying this period, but cross-verification with the History of Liao and History of Song is essential to restore historical truth.