From-Sacrifice: A Detailed Explanation of the Ritual System of Associate Sacrifice in Confucian Scholar Temples

Brief Introduction

“From-sacrifice” (cong- si) is a highly representative concept in China’s ancient sacrificial system. It primarily refers to the practice of including other important figures of slightly lower status or from later eras into the list of honored ancestors when conducting rituals for a core philosopher (such as Confucius). This system not only reflects the balance between “honoring the worthy” and “order” within the Confucian patrilineal social structure, but it also served as an important means by which successive dynasties established a canonical lineage of scholarship and reinforced ideological conformity through state-sponsored rituals. For scholars of Chinese intellectual and political history from the Song dynasty onward, changes in the list of from-sacrifice figures often reflect shifts in the official academic climate of the time.

Analysis of Core Concepts

1. Origins and Definition of the System

The term “from-sacrifice” can be traced back to the Book of Rites (Liji). In practice, however, it specifically refers to the Ten Philosophers, Early Worthies, and other great Confucian masters who are honored as associates in the Temples of Confucius. In the Dacheng Hall of the Confucian temples, Confucius occupies the principal position, while the disciples and great Confucian scholars from subsequent eras arranged on the sides and in the rear halls are the “from-sacrifice figures.”

2. Criteria for Selection and Political Implications

Becoming a target of from-sacrifice in the Temples of Confucius was not based solely on academic achievement; it required meeting stringent political and moral standards. The typical requirements included:
* Excellence in both scholarship and conduct: Making significant contributions to Confucian classics.
* Loyal officials and righteous scholars: Often possessing a personal image that aligned with official ethics of “loyalty, filial piety, chastity, and righteousness.”
* Official approval: Requiring approval via imperial edict, reflecting the imperial power’s control over academic discourse.

3. The Distinction Between “From-Sacrifice” and “Associate Sacrifice”

Associate Sacrifice (pei-xiang*): Typically refers to those of extremely high status (such as the “Ten Philosophers”), holding the most distinguished position.
* From-Sacrifice: Has a broader scope, including Early Worthies and Early Confucians; it is a dynamically adjusted group. As time passed, with the rise of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism, figures such as Zhu Xi were included as from-sacrifice associates, reflecting the shift in the mainstream interpretive authority of Confucianism.

Connection with the Xuzi Zhitong Jian (Continued Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government)

The Xuzi Zhitong Jian covers the history of the Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. It contains numerous records of controversies and adjustments regarding the sacrificial rites at Confucian temples, which deeply reflect the political sensitivity of the from-sacrifice system.

1. From-Sacrifice Debates in the Context of Confucian Orthodoxy in the Song Dynasty

In the Song Dynasty section of the Xuzi Zhitong Jian, one can observe intense debates regarding whether Wang Anshi’s school of thought should be admitted to Confucian temples. During the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song, Wang Anshi’s “New Learning” was widespread. However, because his followers were demoted due to political struggles, the academic status of his school remained ambiguous or marginal for a long time within the official sacrificial system. The records of courtly debates on ritual in the text serve as a window to observe how factional struggles in the Song dynasty influenced academic evaluation.

2. The Ming Dynasty’s Revision of the “Ten From-Sacrifice Figures” in the Xuzi Zhitong Jian

During the Jiajing reign of Emperor Xianzong of Ming, the major “Ritual Controversy” occurred, accompanied by a re-examination of the sacrificial system at Confucian temples. The Xuzi Zhitong Jian details how the court removed from-sacrifice figures who did not align with the contemporary official ideology and added Neo-Confucian scholars. This process was not merely an adjustment of ritual etiquette but marked the definitive shift of Ming official Confucianism from “Han Learning” toward “Song Learning.” By recording imperial edicts and memorials from the Ministry of Rites, the Xuzi Zhitong Jian demonstrates how the list of from-sacrifice figures became a symbol of political maneuvering.

3. The Standardization of the From-Sacrifice System in the Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty section records multiple instances where Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong personally conducted sacrifices at Confucian temples and finalized the lists of from-sacrifice figures. The Qianlong Emperor once ordered the removal of scholars who were “neither sagely nor worthy” or whose “conduct was not impeccable” from Confucian temples, emphasizing moral purity. This detail is solemnly recorded in the Xuzi Zhitong Jian as a state grand ritual, indicating that the from-sacrifice system had become highly institutionalized, serving as a core mechanism for maintaining the orthodoxy of Confucianism in the Qing Dynasty.

Conclusion

The from-sacrifice system was not merely a religious ritual but a microcosm of ancient Chinese intellectual and political history. Through the records of adjustments to from-sacrifice in the Xuzi Zhitong Jian, we can see how successive dynasties defined what was “orthodox” and what was “heterodox” through the arrangement of sacrificial spaces, thereby subconsciously shaping the values of the entire society.